Sales Tax Essay Example for Free

gross gross gross gross revenue Tax EssayOBJECTIVE The objective of this work is to discuss gross revenue tax issues from the ascertainpoint of both the citizen and the Budget Director. Re supposeed will be issues of volatility, reliability, and equity as thoroughly as how the sales tax impacts activities of political relation such as economic development, companionship initiatives and service provision. ultimately this work will answer the question of whether there atomic number 18 any other taxes or revenue sources to substitute for the sales tax as well as stating why or alternatively why there is not an existing substitute. INTRODUCTION SALES TAX ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Sales taxes are collected at the local and state levels and utilized by the government in service provision to the citizens of the United pleads. The United States imposes sales taxes in both state and local administrations in which the customer is charged a combined rate which bundles together (US A Sales Use Tax, 2006) the state tax with the local tax. A merchant is required to charged a sales tax if the business has nexus. A nexus is defined as a substantial physical presence. (USA Sales Use Tax, 2006)Not all products are subject to the sales tax and different states exempt difference products. Sales taxes are applied on the mop up purchase of goods in retail sales. Economic development has been defined as a multi-faceted approach to the development of policies and programs designed to preserve, enhance and promote a spirited and successful business community. (Economic discipline Action Program, 2005)The health and success of the businesses in communities are stated to be directly linked to the quality of life experient by residents in that community (Economic Development Action Program, 2005) which is of primary importance to the entire city or municipality. Creation of jobs and generation of sales tax revenues come through a major contribution to fund the initiative s of service provision with the city. The economic development within a city of municipality is greatly dependent on sales tax revenues in most U.S. states. VOLATILITY, RELIABILITY, AND EQUITYVolatility and Reliability are the two primary considerations of a budget director when revenues raised by taxes are spent on new initiatives. Hirsch et al state that Reliability and Volatility are that which marks the outcome of the question which asks Are new revenues raised by the taxes relatively stable over time or are they excessively volatile and difficult to predict? It is a fact that generation of revenues from sales taxes may be unpredictable since these revenues are greatly dependent on seasonal factors and economic conditions therefore, merchants may experience a really great Christmas hence the sales tax revenues for the government will be great as well however, a lean year for merchants will also result in the coffers of the government for spending in economic development being q uite thin as well. In a journal article relating to the impact of sales tax on the economy of the state of California it is stated thatIf times are good and consumption is high, there will be more revenue from sales taxes than otherwise. If times are bad and layoffs and unemployment are up, personal income taxes will be reduced. Some taxpayers will lose their jobs or not have opportunities to work overtime. huffish economic activity will hurt profits and thus collections from corporate income taxes. Similarly, if times are bad, certain kinds of welfare-related expenditures may increase. While the linkage between economic developments and the status of the budget is clear, the actual budget process involves making a forecast of what those economic developments will be. Then budget forecasters must estimate but how the assumed developments will affect revenue (Hirsch, et al, 2004)The third element is that of Equity which is one of the five principles stated by the National Conferenc e of State Legislatures (NCSL) that were compiled in 1988 with input from lawmakers and academics. The principle involving Equity along with the other principles for sound tax policy. The five principles are(1) Provision of appropriate revenues (sufficiency, stability, and certainty of revenues produced)(2) Neutrality(3) Equity(4) wanton and economical to administer(5) accountability (i) taxpayers are accountable for payment of their taxes(ii) tax agencies are accountable for administration and enforcement of the tax laws efficiently and fairly and(iii) lawmakers accountable for the fairness of the tax laws. (Hirsch et al, 2004)III. VIOLATION OF PRINCIPLES IN NEW YORK ECONOMIC DEVELOPEMNTIn a recent testimony before the U.S. Senate in a hearing before the Subcommittee on International job of the Committee on Finance earlier this year given by Walter Hellerstein who is said to be the nations leading legal academic ascendency on state and local taxation stated is that a New York e conomic development incentive to attract sales to the New York exchanges was a sexist tax to the Boston Stock Exchange that viewed the incentive as diverting economic activity from the Boston exchange, a view with which the U.S. Supreme Court concurred. (Testimony of Walter Hellerstein, 2006) tell as well is that the economic development incentive for its fledging wine industry was a discriminatory tax to sellers of alcoholic beverages produced in other states, a view with which the U.S. Supreme Court concurred. (Ibid)SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION Clearly the sales tax scheme or plan of a city or municipality involves the necessary view which is all-inclusive of the factors that will impact the revenues realized from sales taxes and as well are able to realize the volatility or alternatively the reliability of the sales tax revenues in the budget plan. Then the comprehension of the sales taxes as they affect the individuals within the community both from the advantages of the economic de velopment in the community as well as the impact the increase of sales tax will have on the spending habits in times that are characterized by layoffs and unemployment in the area.Finally it must be comprehended that all of this is inherently linked in the planning of sales taxes, city budgets and economic development in that economic development works to ensure a healthy and quality lifestyle for the taxpayers that reside in the community, and as well that economic development furthers the evolution of businesses and employment within the community.These successful individuals and households within the community in turn replenish the community or city coffers with the sales taxes on the purchases that they make in the community thereby funding even more economic development in the community. Last, the principles that have been reviewed in this research as set out by the National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL) must be followed in order to avoid the situation that the econo mic development initiatives in New York and Hawaii experienced in being found in violation of those principles by the U.S. Supreme Court.WORKS CITEDTestimony of Walter Hellerstein before the U.S. Senate Hearing before the Subcommittee on International Trade of the Committee on Finance (2006) Online available at http//64.233.161.104/search?q=cacheEnVhxxKAqIYJwww.law.uga.edu/news/advocate/spring2006/hellerstein.pdf+seconomic+development+sales+tax+issueshl=engl=usct=clnkcd=17Economic Development Action Program (2005) City of Bothell nd Online available at http//www.ci.bothell.wa.us/dept/CM/EconDev/ActionProgram.htmlOne Taxpayers Economic Development Incentive Is Often Anothers Discriminatory Tax.(Advocate Spring/ summer 2006 Online available at http//64.233.161.104/search?q=cacheEnVhxxKAqIYJwww.law.uga.edu/news/advocate/spring2006/hellerstein.pdf+seconomic+development+sales+tax+issueshl=engl=usct=clnkcd=17Hirsch, Werner A. et al (2004) Making Californias State BudgetMore User-Friendly And Transparent Online available at http//www.spa.ucla.edu/calpolicy02/HirschEtc.pdfUSA Sales Use Tax, (2006) http//www.ustaxnetwork.com/

The Need For Women Empowerment Sociology Essay

The Need For Women Empowerment Sociology examineSeeing as the older era, a woman has been treated as inferior citizens of on the whole across the world. The position is to a greater extent or less the same universally ir leverive of the urbanized nation. Women have been consigned to inferior position regardless of the concomitant that they numerically represent closely 50% of the world population today. In perspective of sound and qualified ability, this situation has menialered the womans self-esteem, autonomy and pride as homo beings. in that locationfore, women empowerment is a compelling issue in the present world. Women empowerment is the course of actions taken by women to have ownership and control of their lives through wing of their selections (Khan Awan, 2011).Now this paper will discuss about the factors i.e. gender inequality, lack of education and that hinders women empowerment and also several recommendations to promote it.In the extremely initiation of evolut ion, women enjoyed a highly regarded position in society at equivalence with men. They dynamically indulged in social, religious dealings as healthy as in competition. Moreover, the traditional ceremonies were considered imperfect if women do not participate. Though, it was their considerable constitution which became hurdle on the approach of doing a variety of different complicated tasks. Gradually, they start fitting dependent on men for their food, work and other necessities. During the development of society, the position of women changed because of the establishment of patriarchy i.e manful dominancy. Gradually, male dominancy enters in society and the caliber of women is been impel up, who surpass the skills on men. Women have do great progress in different areas of life and got achievements interchangeable teacher, doctor, engineer, pi practically etc. This achievement should really appreciate as they have achieved these things by passing through highly worst situation s and at the cost of severe social criticism.According to the Fourth UN World Conference for Women, men-controlled society, libertine traditional standards and inflexible socio-cultural customs makes women to suffer (Awan, 2012). Although, a lot of effort has been do by civil society organizations, microfinance institutes, governing bodies, different international bodies like CARE, UNICEF to uplift women but the status of women is more or less same in the present circumstances.Women are discriminated and more subjected to problems in many aspects because of gendered social structure. The fact is evident that women are among the vulnerable segment in society (Naz, Ibrahim Ahmed, 2012). Gender inequality influences women empowerment in a negative manner. In todays world, although females are operative in many fields of work but they are still considered weak in comparison with men. Many cultures and societies question womans ability to work in certain tasks. For instance in Africa , politics and economics are believed to be fields for males. Moreover, in Nigeria, it is a tradition that males will not participate in domestic work but its solely a responsibility of women. According to the Liberal Feminism theory, society believes that women are by nature less understanding and physically less capable which excludes women from political, economical and academic domains (Bimolain, 2013). In Pakistan, women discrimination is very apparent in every aspect. As on that point is a male dominant society, women are restricted to have participation in jobs, properties and even they do not have the right to raise their voice. A study was done in Faisalabad and Rawalpindi to measure the empowerment level of women in study area and to identify the socio-cultural factors that influence women empowerment in domestic aspect. Results showed that majority of women had lack of resources and low education, their paid job involvement was negligible, low level of awareness about t heir rights, less decision making ability, less mobility and lower level of participation in family discussions (Khan, 2010).The need for women empowerment came through minor position they were getting for so long. The empowerment is a tool that can bring change in their socio-economic condition. It has been know that no society can progress without the women lag behind. Empowerment needs to start on with women involvement in different aspects of life. Education contains a vast value in this view but education for promoting women empowerment is still not fully understood. To attain empowerment women have to have education about their rights with in a modern society. It is the education that can convey knowledge in them associated with their social status, prejudice and discrimination for them. According to International Center for research on Women (2005), women with highereducation have more control over their destinies. Moreover, higher education also plays a pivotal role in red ucing violence against women, female and infant mortality and risky behaviors. Studies done in Africa and Latin America showed that education lowers risky behaviors and risk of sexually transmitted diseases (A arcsecond look, 2005). Besides this, financial autonomy is the most important factor that contributes in empowering women. In Pakistan, women are getting educated but still in that respect is a great discrimination. According to Islamic teachings It is a duty of every Muslim man and woman to seek knowledge (Tariq, n.d.). Usually, it is observed that if the family affords to give education only to their one child, they always choose male to be their bread earner. In Pakistan, 69% men are literate whereas for females literacy rate is 45% only which indicates a great gender gap.To improve women empowerment worldwide, people need to change their own perspectives, norms and values. Women and men are equal in all respect and there must be some effective work to be done to make wom en to work equally with men in every aspect of life. There should be some comprehensive framework for women on the national and international level and effective ways for its implementation and monitoring. Women right should be protected in every aspect on governmental level. For Instance, discrimination and abuse against women would lead to jail immediately and have to pay cash penalties. Health resources should be made accessible and affordable to reduce female mortalities but on the other hand women should be given enough freedom to go for their checkups without their husbands as well because humanity comes first irrespective of any culture. Western countries instead of raising voice for the violation of right of women in Pakistan should help them to make the standard biography of women by building schools for their education and some vocational training should be there so that they can groom their abilities and to provide the opportunities of earning especially for the women li ving in rural areas. The main cause of violation of women rights is the lack of earning opportunities and education. If empowerment of women will be their then next coming generation will be more educated and then women will be secured and less hesitated to raise the voice against their rights. Moreover, effective higher education should be provided to poor women with low fees or there must some financial assistance from different governmental bodies. According to one study done in Egypt, it was found that women with post-secondary schooling were about 25 percent more likely to be formally employed (A second look, 2005). Participation in politics and decision making on broader level should be in cooperated so that women can raise their voices and opinions and fight for their rights. Biasness regarding sexes and stereotypes against women must be taken under consideration to save women from violence. There must be counselor sessions for women in both the rural and urban areas so as t o make females aware of their rights, needs and risky behaviors and their consequences. This crucial insight suggests that strategies for change need to be targeted at specific groups of girls and women and significant others such as fathers, husbands and sons, taking into account their particular circumstances (David, 2012).In Islam, women have given huge respect as it can be proved by the sayings of Prophet Muhammad that PARADISE LIES UNDER MOTHER FEET. Whether it is a Pakistani society or western, women should get equal rights and respect from every aspect. The chore is not too complex to accomplish. Two things that are honesty and sincerity on the element of those concerned are required. If the change occurs in lots of women then definitely it will provide a constructive impact on society. Hence, the womens empowerment is the need of the hour. Word count 13791328 Words Essay on Womens Empowerment in Indiahttp//cssexam2013.blogspot.com/2012/11/essay-women-empowerment-in-pakistan. htmlhttp//papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1482560The task is not too difficult to achieve. The honesty and sincerity on the part of those involved is a must. If the lots of women change, definitely it will have a positive impact on society. Hence, the womens empowerment is the need of the hour.

Motivated You To Study Social Work Education Essay

Motivated You To Study Social Work Education proveMy motivation to study social massage comes from my passion about helping people who atomic number 18 less advantaged. Having spent the last five years running(a) in a social care environment helped me to realise that my passion lies in helping the most vulnerable members of our society. I found kick the bucketing as a Care Assistant extremely challenging but alike rewarding. Attending a multi-disciplinary care reviews gave me a great insight into a social toyer role. I found out that social work can help service users principal(prenominal)tain their dignity and independence, give wider choices of support, protect from abuse as well as reduce admissions to hospital. I hope that studying social work will give me a valuable skills and k instanterledge needed for efficacious professional practice as a social worker.2. What type of learner are you? stopping point year on the access code course through the influence on the cla ss I have identified my culture means Appendix 1. K right offing and come acrossing my learning style helped me to learn more effectively and point opportunities to improve my learning.According to Honey and Mumford (1982) Learning Style Model I perform strongly as a Reflector. As a Reflector I learn by observing and thinking about what happened. I like to stand back and observe experiences from many different perspectives. I like to demand instruction (the more that better), and prefer to think about it thoroughly in front coming to any conclusions. I prefer to take a back merchantman in meetings and discussions. I always listen to others before making my own point. I learn less well when universe thrown in at the deep end with no time to prepare and when acting as leader or role-playing in front of others. Having identified my learning style, I now understand that as a radiateor I am a slow learner and require more time to study, that is why it is important to invent my study effectively. I also need to try to get involved more in meeting and discussions instead of sitting back and listen.My preferred style of learning was also determined by completing the Learning Styles Questionnaire on C_Space Appendix 2. According to the questionnaire I learn best by optical way. Information presented in pictures, diagrams or charts is easily remembered. I like to watch the lecturer closely and be able to essay the teacher body language to fully understand the content of a lesson. I also like to use colours in my studies such as coloured markers to highlight information. As a visual learner it is important to make sure that I sit always in a position in the classroom where I can see things clearly.3. How do others perceive your values and abilities?Recently I asked my best friend how they perceive my values and abilities. The feedback I have been given was as followYou are sensible, cautious, careful practical. I see you as clever, gifted, or talented, but m odest. Not a person who makes friends too quickly or easily, but someone whos extremely loyal to friends you do make and who expects the same loyalty in return. Those who really get to know you realize it takes a lot to shake your trust in your friends, but equally that it takes you a long time to get over if that trust is ever broken.My fellow students see me as confident, open minded and ordained person. So far, the feedback form my tutors was always positive, however I am prepared to can take negative feedback. Receiving feedback is great opportunity to gain useful information and insight into what we need to develop or improve in range to grow professionally.4. How do you approach learning? How have you improved your skills for study (including IT)?Having developed a number of strategies and techniques on last year course enabled me to make the most efficient use of my time, resources, and potential. I approach my studies strategically and systematically by working out where to invest my time and energies.Choosing the right place to study is important as I work most effectively in a well set up study area. I like to work in a comfortable and free from distractions place with a good lighting and a room to spread my book and papers. period management is a vehicle that can carry you from wherever you are to wherever you want to be (Tracy 20072)Time management in the mention skill to handle my coursework and to get it done on time. Good time management skills enable me to utilise my time in a more effective way and allow me to accomplish more tasks in a shortest possible way. A study time table is an demand ingredient in effective time management. I have created a weekly time table Appendix 3 to help me organise my day-today tasks, which keeps me positive and center on my studying, and helps me achieve my targets. I have also learned to prioritise my work by doing the small and easy tasks first and taking them out of the way, before trying to tackle larger pieces of work. I have created things to do list Appendix 4. I use it to set daily priorities and to reduce decision making and worry.The big businessman to make clear and concise notes is another important skill that I have developed through my study. Taking notes helps me to gain a deeper understanding of the lawsuit and capture the essential points of the topic. It also helps to make sense of what is to be learned and to remember it later. Having identified my preferred learning style I know now that I work well with patterned notes, such as nuclear, spider grams, diagrammatic and mind maps. This method was described by Buzan (1992) in his book utilisation your head. He calls the technique Mind Mapping. Mind maps allow for greater activity when recording ideas and information, as well as allowing the note-taker to associate words with visual representations (Buzan, 1992). pattern notes involve writing the main topic in the centre of the page, and then write interestd ideas around it and link them up to show their relationship to the main idea. Pattern notes are more visual, and are very active form of learning. For example of my note taking please see Appendix 5. I have also learned how to read effectively by being selective, scanning, skimming and questioning as I read.Computer helps me to study in many different ways. It helps me to search online for information, make structured notes, creating charts, graphs and tables and to organise and keep track of my studies. Although I have used computer in the past there was areas that I still had to improve. Last year on the access course I have learned how to work with spread sheets, databases, and create a power point presentation, which helped me to improve my IT skills. Appendix 65. What factors feign your learning?Having many responsibilities as an adult learner I must balance against the demands of learning. Personally, the factor affecting my learning is English as a bite language I do find it hard at the times to express myself in the way that I wish to. It also lower my assumption and self esteem. Being subject to jokes about my funny accent in the past made me feel nervous when speaking in front of others. However, my combine in that area improved dramatically since starting the course.Distractions while studying could be another area that affects my learning. I need a quiet and organised place to study without any interruption. I have learned to minimise distractions while I work by encouraging others to respect my rights to work without interruption. I keep my phone off when I am studying to avoid phone calls that could disturb my learning.Self esteem and lack of confidence. Before I took an Access Course my self esteem as well as confidence were very low. I did not believe in my abilities and felt very vile about going back to education after a long break. Having a positive feedback from the tutors as well as fellow students helped me to build up my self- e steem and become a confident student.6. How do you become an effective problem act uponr in your life?Problem solving is one of the key skills in social work practice. Social workers use a problem solving approach in working with individuals, families, groups and communities. As a social work student, it is very important to me to become an effective problem solver.In my personal life I have learned confronting rather than avoiding problems. I tend to solve my problems using a simple technique. The first stage is to define the problem. To understand why the problem exist and looking at the root cause of the problem. second I explore the problem by looking at how does the problem affect me or others? The next step is looking for possible solutions and selecting a pictorial solution that is most relevant to me. Finally I put my solution into action. It is however important to evaluate the effectiveness of my solution.7. How do you become more effective, sovereign and confident sel f- tell learner?Self-directed learning is a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning closings, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes(Knowles, 197514).According to Malcolm Knowles (1984) adults learn differently than young people. In his theory of adult learning Knowles pointed that adults are self- directed in their learning. As a person matures his self-concept moves from one of being a dependent personality toward one of being a self-directed human being (Knowles, 198412).As an adult student I take responsibility for my learning processes, such as goal-setting, instructional design and evaluation of my learning process. Being organised helps me to manage my studies effectively.In order to become more independent learner I need to be motivated to learn, able to manage my time effectively, and reflect upon my learning. Effectiveness of learning depend on having your state of mind, space, time, and materials organised in the ways that best suit your learning (Cottrell, 200867).8. How did you work cooperatively with othersI am a part of a Care team working in a care home for people with dementia. Being a part of the team I have learned how to work co- operatively with my work colleagues. As a team member I have learn contribute to achieving the goal of meeting the needs of clients.Apart from work I also work co operatively with others in group work tasks on classes. We were put to groups to fill out specific task. I worked cooperatively by sharing my ideas, being and active listener, respect other people views, work together with the members of group to complete the task successfully. Working in groups gave me a great opportunity to gain confidence and develop interpersonal skills, such as active listening and questioning and dialogue skills.9. How do you relate your learning to the contemporary context of social work practice?Working in a Social Care as a Carer my role involves providing practical support, and enabling service users to maintain their independence to lead fuller and secure life. I also build partnerships with people I work with, trying to win them trust and encouraging them to cope and get most out of life. I relate my learning to the contemporary context of social work by implementing my current skills and knowledge to my work settings. Skills such as interpersonal skills help me to understand the enormousness of actively listening and empathising with service users in order to enter the world from their point of view. I am also more aware about the group dynamics in my work place and importance of effective team working in order to achieve the desire outcomes. Since doing the degree I also developed an anti discriminatory practice. I started to relate the theories to practice to understand the causes of di scrimination and ways to challenge it effectively.

Analysis of the Child Behaviour Checklist

Analysis of the Child demeanour ChecklistChapter II Literature ReviewAs suggested in the introduction, numerous researchers hasten explored the preponderance of ablaze and behavioral worrys crossways the globe. Researchers subscribe to alike investigated correlates (e.g., mount up and sex) associated with ruttish and behavioral jobs. The psychometric properties of instruments assessing excited and deport psychogenic troubles founder similarly been a subject of interest. In addition, researchers have overly investigated cross-cultural similarities and disparities among stimulated and behavioral problems. The extensive literature that addresses these issues, and which also helped formulate the rationale for the up-to-date study, is presented in five segmentations. The depression section laid-backlights the problems associated with epidemiological studies and compargons the twain chief(prenominal) commencees to epidemiological studies, namely the compress ed and the experimental approach. The irregular section provides a detailed description of the CBCL including the ontogenesis of the measure, its psychometric properties, its advant ripens and disadvantages, as tumesce as its ramble of applicability. The third section provides a description of the theoretical rationale for assessing cultural similarities and disparities associated with worked up and behavioural problems. Multicultural findings base on the CBCL as rise as age and sex differences associated with emotional and behavioural problems be also storyed. The fourth section lie downs of a review of the various processes k nonted in assessing the psychometric properties of instruments and findings establish on psychometric properties of the various translations of the CBCL. The fifth section consists of a brief cultural and socio-political description of Pakistani society followed by a description of the prominent features (i.e., family, community and cultural fe deral agents) in relation to emotional and behavioural problems in Pakistani society. Fin whollyy, on that point is a description of the objectives of the current study.Epidemiology of Emotional and Behavioural hassles up-to-date reviews of epidemiological studies indicate that in that respect is a high preponderance of emotional and behavioural problems among kidskinren and adolescents around the world (Costello et al., 2004 Hackett Hackett, 1999 Waddell et al., 2002). In matchless review, Costello et al. compargond findings crossways several certain countries (including Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom, Germ each and Australia) to investigate the prevalence of emotional and behavioural problems as head as that of variant mental problems. base on their findings, the boilersuit prevalence pass judgment of psychological problems among children and adolescents had a very broad range (0.1% to 42%), with varying place for to each wholeness category of disor der. Categories imply disruptive behaviour disorders (i.e., pack disorder, oppositional disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder), mood disorders (i.e., major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder), anxiety disorders (i.e., phobias, commonplaceized anxiety disorder, obsessive exacting disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder) as nearly as substance ab part and dependence. A critical examination of the studies acceptd in the review revealed that variations in prevalence rank whitethorn be attributed to methodological flaws such(prenominal) as substantial disparity crosswise studies with regard to test size and the age range assessed. Moreover, differences crosswise studies in term of the measures employ, the criteria sedulous as well as the type of informant may also have influenced the findings.In contrast to Costello et al.s (2004) review, Waddell et al.s (2002) review was found on more than stringent criteria studies base on samples of similar s ize and age range, as well as using similar methodology were comp bed. Based on Waddell et al.s review, the prevalence swans of emotional and behavioural problems varied between 10% and 20%. Although findings from both reviews vary considerably, the prevalence rates of emotional and behavioural problems across authentic countries is still high and warrants serious attention. Moreover, methodological disparities across studies underscore the need for a uniform methodology to investigate the prevalence of emotional and behavioural problems.In contrast to developed countries, there argon few researchers investigating prevalence rates in create countries (e.g., Bangladesh, India, Sri lanka, Sudan, and Uganda) (Costello, 2009 Fleitlich-Bilyk Goodman, 2004 Mullick Goodman, 2005 Nikapota, 1991 Prior, Virasinghe, Smart, 2005). Moreover, there is a scarcity of reviews of the actual studies. In one review, Hackett and Hackett (1999) compargond moments from India, Puerto Rico, Malaysi a and Sudan, and the prevalence rates of psychological disorders ranged from 1% to 49%. Similar to research in developed countries, researchers attribute variations in findings to methodological problems across studies, which complicate an inadequate sample size, paucity of explicit and internationally accepted diagnostic criteria, as well as inconsistencies in assessment procedures (Fleitlich-Bilyk Goodman, 2004). Moreover, prevalence rates among developing countries may also partly be linked to the sociable, economic and medical environment. For example, lack of medical resources and awareness roughly psychological problems may result in arouses non k right offing how to seek help (Gadit, 2007). Social taboos further compound the problem, preventing people from account problems and deterring help-seeking behaviour (Samad, Hollis, Prince, Goodman, 2005). More importantly, cultural variations in the expression and realization of psychological problems may result in vari ed reporting of symptoms (Gadit, 2007). These environmental differences and methodological inconsistencies across studies emphasize the need for a cross-culturally robust methodology to investigate the prevalence of emotional and behavioural problems.Along with methodological problems and environmental differences, emotional and behavioural problems merit investigation because they affect tenfold aspects of childrens surgical operation such as academic consummation and social margin (Montague et al., 2005 Nelson et al., 2004 Vitaro et al., 2005). Researchers also verbalise that there is high comorbidity among emotional and behavioural problems, (SteinHausen, Metze, Meier, Kannenberg, 1998) which creates eightfold problems for children and their caregivers. Moreover, many puerility disorders have-to doe with and influence functioning during adulthood. In fact, many adult disorders are now recognized as having roots in childhood vulnerabilities (Maughan Kim-Cohen, 2005 Trembl ay et al., 2005). Furthermore, recognizing and treating problems early sack up land the burden of the enormous military personnel and financial costs associated with the assessment and intervention, especially in countries where resources are scarce (Costello, Egger, Angold, 2005 James et al., 2002 Waddell et al., 2002). In addition, cross-cultural epidemiology of childrens emotional and behavioural problems may also reform inform current knowledge about the characteristics, course, and correlates of such problems, which in turn provide a scientific backside for hold mental health supplying (Achenbach Rescorla, 2007 Waddell et al.). Therefore, there is a strong need for a methodology that can be apply for clinical as well as research purposes to assess emotional and behavioural problems among children and adolescents across cultures.Current literature indicates that there are two main approaches to investigate the epidemiology of emotional and behavioural problems, namely t he matted and the semi observational approach. There are several differences in both approaches including conceptualization of psychological problems as well as the methodology employed for their assessment. Both approaches will be discussed briefly.The categorical approach. The categorical approach, establish on the biomedical perspective, views psychological problems as a group of maladaptive and distressing behaviours, emotions and thoughts which are qualitatively opposite from the true (Cullinan, 2004). That is, similar to medical diseases, an individual may or may not have a specific psychological disorder. conventional epidemiological studies are establish on the categorical approach as embodied in various editions of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM) (American psychiatric Association (APA), 1980 1987 1994 2000) and the International variety of Diseases (WHO, 1978 1992). Examples of instruments employ in traditional epidemiological studies to derive DSM diagnoses accommodate the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children ( dish aerial) (Costello, Edelbrock, Kalas, Kessler, Klaric, 1982) and the childrens version of the Schedule for affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (Kiddie-SADS) (Puig-Antich Chambers, 1978). At present, there is considerable debate about the validity of epidemiological studies establish on the categorical approach. Researchers have highlighted that inconsistencies in prevalence rates may be delinquent to conceptual and methodological issues linked with the DSM as well as methodological disparities among studies (Achenbach Rescorla, 2007 Waddell et al., 2002). Each of these factors will be discussed briefly.DSM related problems. tenfold conceptual and methodological problems are associated with the DSM. First, the DSM does not provide a methodology to operationally define different psychological disorders (Widiger Clark, 2000). To operationally define DSM criteria, various diagnostic inter views such as the DISC have been developed. Unfortunately, meta-analyses indicate that the diagnoses based on the DISC and other diagnostic interviews are not in agreement with diagnoses make through comprehensive clinical interviews, which indicate that, n both diagnostic nor clinical interviews provide good validity criteria for testing DSM categories (Achenbach, 2005 Costello et al., 2005 Lewczyk et al., 2003). Second, the diagnostic categories and criteria provided in the DSM continue to mixture as reflected in the changes across the various editions of the DSM, namely the third edition (APA, 1980), third edition revised (APA, 1987), fourth edition (APA, 1994), and fourth edition schoolbook revised (APA, 2000), making comparisons across editions problematic (Achenbach, 2005). Third, although the current version, known as the DSM-IV-text revised (APA, 2000), aims at introducing cultural sensitivity in assessment and diagnoses by including an compendium for cultural formulation and a glossary of culture-bound syndromes (APA., 2000, pg. 897), it does not provide criteria or guidelines regarding the use of the salmagundi system with specific cultural groups (Paniagua, 2005). Since many of the DSM diagnostic criteria are based on Euro-American social norms, it is difficult to use the DSM criteria to identify psychopathology in individuals from other cultures.In addition, there is growing consensus among researchers that DSM categories need to be more give up for children and adolescents of different ages and gender (Doucette, 2002 Segal Coolidge, 2001). Turk et al. (2007) also highlight the saliency of factors such as age and gender when investigating prevalence rates. However, at present, this is not the case. Costello et al. (2005) have stated that the constant cultivational changes of childhood create the need for an age- and gender- specific approach to epidemiology.Before incorporating a developmental perspective in epidemiological studies, it is n ecessary to have a come apart understanding of developmental psychopathology. Developmental psychopathology is based on the view that problems arise from different causes, manifest themselves other than at each stage, and may have diverse outcomes. Developmental psychologists do not support a specific theory to explain all developmental issues. Instead, they provide to coordinated knowledge from multiple disciplines (Cicchetti Dawson, 2002). Moreover, developmental psychopathology also includes an analysis of the existing risk and protective factors at heart the individual and also in his/her environment over the course of development (Cicchetti Walker, 2003).According to Costello and colleagues (2004), a developmental perspective in epidemiological studies is based on the inclusion of certain principles. First, precise assessment measures for the different phases in childhood and adolescence are required to compare childrens functioning with that of their resembling-age peer s. For example, problems such as business organisation of dark places is considered typical for 6-year-olds but not for 12-year-olds. Furthermore, the developmental perspective would include longitudinal studies to evaluate the ways in which developmental processes influence the risk of specific psychological disorders. For example, the developmental trajectory of natural onset is such that there is an make up in offensive conduct during the first few old age of childhood, but it progressively decreases until adulthood (Tremblay et al., 2004). Moreover, developmental epidemiology would include public assessments to determine the onset of disorders. shit assessments would also assist in the identification of environmental and individual factors that contribute to the development of psychopathology. Although the developmental perspective emphasises the need for age- and gender-specific diagnostic criteria, longitudinal studies as well as frequent assessments, it is difficult t o incorporate this perspective in studies based on the categorical approach as it is not sensitive to developmental changes.methodological disparities. A critical analysis of flatly based epidemiological studies reveals multiple methodological problems. These include inconsistencies in assessment and taste procedures as well as absence of guidelines about using entropy from multiple sources. In wrong of assessment procedures, both symptoms as well as meaning(a) impairment are required to identify children with disorders. This is corroborated by Costello et al. (2004), who report that the disparity in the prevalence rates of phobias (i.e., 0.1% to 21.9%) may be attributed to how phobias were assessed in each study, in exceptional, whether both symptoms (e.g., fear of open places, snakes) as well as significant functional impairment were taken into account in the identification of phobias. Waddell et al. (2002) state that the use of regularize measures has evanesce to an impro vement in the assessment of symptoms however, problems still exist with regard to how impairment is gauged or how measures may be combined to include symptoms as well as impairment. Another problem with assessment procedures is that different interview schedules (e.g., DISC and the Kiddie-SADS) and DSM editions have been used across studies, which may have contributed to differences in prevalence rates.Incompatible sample procedures may also have led to disparities in boilers suit prevalence rates in categorically based epidemiological studies (Waddell et al., 2002). For example, studies such as the vast Smokey Mountains study (Costello, Angold, Burns, Erkanli, Stangel Tweed, 1996) were relatively more comprehensive, and investigated a larger number of diagnostic categories than other studies. As a result, high overall prevalence rates of psychological problems were reported compared to studies that did not assess as many disorders. Another sampling issue is that reviews were b ased on studies that differed with regard to the age range assessed some studies rivet on a younger age bracket (i.e., between 8 to 11 year olds), others on an older age bracket (i.e., 11 years and older), whereas some researches included a very broad age range (i.e., 6 to 17 year olds). In addition, there were inconsistencies across studies in terms of the type of informant used some studies relied on parents only, some on children, while some combined data from parents, children as well as teachers. Differences in the age brackets assessed as well as the use of different informants may have contributed to disparities in epidemiological findings.Another great issue with regard to categorically based epidemiological studies concerns the coordination and interpretation of information from multiple informants. Since problem behaviours may only occur in specific situations or with specific individuals, multiple informants (e.g., teachers, parents and children) are necessary. However, since the respondents context and perception have a great impact on the identification of psychological problems, poor agreement among respondents is a great deal reported. For example, children normally report higher rates of internalizing symptoms (e.g., anxiety and depression) while parents tends to report higher rates of externalizing symptoms (e.g., Conduct Problems) (Rubio-Stipec, Fitzmaurice, Murphy, Walker, 2003). Additionally, children are not considered reliable reporters of their own behaviour due to differences in cognitive abilities as well as the ability to report their own behaviour (Achenbach McConaughy, 2003). Despite such findings, the categorical approach does not provide guidelines regarding obtaining and interpreting data from multiple sources, which complicates matters in terms of how to combine data into yes-or-no decisions about different symptoms.The various conceptual problems associated with the DSM as well as the methodological flaws in epidemiologica l reviews highlight the problems associated with using the categorical approach as a basis for epidemiological studies. Moreover, these issues underscore the need for an approach that is methodologically sound and culturally appropriate for cross-cultural comparisons. An alternative to problems linked to the categorical approach, where an a priori criterion is imposed, can be a system that is through empirical observation based and identifies problems as they occur in a population. Such an approach would be helpful in highlighting cultural differences in the manifestation of different emotional and behavioural problems. Moreover, there is also a need for a methodology that can be employed in a standardized, systematic fashion. Although the empirical approach is not a catholicon for problems associated with epidemiological studies, it does provide solutions to some of the types of errors in the categorical system.Empirical or dimensional approach. The empirical or dimensional approa ch, in accordance with a psychosocial perspective, views mental health as a continuum. The dimensional perspective supports the notion that all individuals experience problems involving behaviours, emotions and thoughts to varying extents. Those who experience such problems to an ingrained extent (unusual frequency, duration, intensity, or other aspects) are more likely to have a psychological disorder (Cullinan, 2004). In contrast to imposing a priori criteria on childrens emotional and behavioural problems, the empirical approach identifies problems as they present themselves in the population. According to Cullinan (2004), there are certain steps involved in developing a dimensional classification system for emotional and behavioural problems. These steps include creating a appeal of items that reflect measurable problem behaviours experienced by children, identifying a group of children to be studied, assessing every child in the group on each problem, and investigating the da ta to identify items that co-vary, thus leading to the identification of different dimensions or factors. aft(prenominal) the dimensions have been derived, the pool of items can be used to assess and classify emotional and behaviour problems among new populations. Given that the empirical approach is based on the identification of co-occurring problem behaviours in the population, instead of imposing a priori criteria, it is a favourable approach for cross-cultural epidemiological studies. at heart empirical approaches, the Achenbach System of through empirical observation Based Assessment (ASEBA) provides a good framework for epidemiological studies for multiple reasons. First, being empirically based, ASEBA identifies emotional and behavioural problems as they occur in the population. Second, it is based on a developmental perspective, has a uniform methodology, and also provides explicit guidelines about using data from multiple sources (Achenbach McConaughy, 1997 Achenbach Re scorla, 2001). so it provides solutions to problems that arise in the categorical approach. Moreover, Cullinan (2004) and Krol et al. (2006) state that ASEBA measures have been used more extensively compared to other measures of emotional and behavioural problems, such as the Conners Rating Scale- rewrite (Conners,1990) and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (Goodman, 1997). Achenbach system of empirically based assessment (ASEBA).Although the ASEBA has a non-theoretical, empirical base per se, it is greatly influenced by the principles of developmental psychopathology. For example, Achenbach highlights that problems may include thoughts, behaviours, and emotions that may manifest themselves differently depending on the age and gender of the individual (Greenbaum et al., 2004). Therefore, each ASEBA form provides norms based on the age and gender of the child, which enables an individuals functioning to be assessed in comparison to same-age peers. Furthermore, ASEBA is a multiaxial system that encompasses a family of standardized instruments for the assessment of behavioural and emotional problems as well as adaptive functioning. The five axes of the assessment model include parent (Axis I) and teacher (Axis II) reports, cognitive (Axis III) and physical (Axis IV) assessments as well as the direct assessment of children (Axis V) (Achenbach McConaughy, 2003). The use of different ASEBA instruments provides a standardized and uniform methodology to incorporate information from multiple sources.Furthermore, all ASEBA instruments are empirically based. In accordance with the empirical approach, the arrive ation of the ASEBA forms involved a series of steps (Achenbach McConaughy, 2003). Initially, a collection of potential symptom behaviours (i.e., items) was derived from multiple sources. These items were operationally defined in such a manner that respondents not trained in psychological theory could use them. In accordance with general item-develo pment procedures, pilot tests were conducted to evaluate the clarity of items, response shells and item distribution. Finally, items that could differentiate between individuals who were not functioning well and their well functioning same-age peers were retained. Multivariate statistical analyses were utilise to the retained items in order to identify syndromes of problems that co-occur. Syndromes were identified purely on the basis of co-occurrence, without any link to a particular cause. Subsequently, the syndromes of co-occurring problem items were used to construct scales. These scales were used to assess individuals in order to assess the degree to which they exhibit each syndrome. Since all ASEBA instruments are empirically based, findings can be compared on the basis of the manifestation of different emotional and behavioural problems, thereby providing a clearer picture of cross-cultural similarities and disparities of different emotional and behavioural problems.In terms of the historical evolution of the system, ASEBA originated to provide a more differentiated assessment of child and adolescent psychopathology than the DSM. When ASEBA was developed, the first edition of the DSM (APA, 1952) had only two categories for childhood disorders, which included adjustment reactions of childhood and schizophrenic reaction childhood type (Achenbach Rescorla, 2006). In contrast to the DSM, the first ASEBA publication highlighted more syndromes of emotional and behavioural problems (APA, 1952). Moreover, based on factor analyses, Achenbach (1966) identified two broad groupings of problems for which he coined the terms Internalizing and Externalizing. As described earlier, Internalizing Problems included problems with the self, such as anxiety, depression, withdrawal, and Somatic Complaints, without any apparent physical cause. On the other hand, Externalizing Problems included problems with other people, as well as problems linked to non-conformance to socia l norms and mores, such as aggressive and neglectful behaviour. Although all ASEBA forms are used extensively in clinical and research environments, the Child Behavior Checklist is the most widely recognized measure for the assessment of emotional and behavioural problems (Greenbaum et al., 2004 Webber Plotts, 2008).Child Behavior ChecklistAn essential part and the cornerstone of Achenbachs multiaxial, empirical system is the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Although the CBCL assesses social competencies as well as problem behaviours, it is widely recognized as a measure of emotional and behavioural problems as opposed to social competencies. In fact, researchers suggest that the CBCL is the most extensively utilized measure for the assessment of problem behaviours among children and adolescents as observed by their parents and caregivers (Krol et al., 2006 Greenbaum et al., 2004).Although there have been multiple revisions to the initial CBCL, all versions have the same format an d consist of two distinct sections. The first section measures social competencies. Parents are asked to respond to 20 questions regarding the childs functioning in sports, miscellaneous activities, organizations, jobs and chores, and friendships. Items also cover the childs relations with significant others, how well the child plays and workings alone, as well as his/her functioning at school. Finally, respondents describe any known illnesses or disabilities, the issues that concern them the most about the child, and the best things about the child (Achenbach Rescorla, 2006). The second section assesses problem behaviour and consists of 118 items that describe specific emotional and behavioural problems, along with two open-ended items for reporting additional problems. Examples of problem items include acts too young for age, cruel to animals, too fearful or anxious, and unhappy, sad or depressed. Problem behaviours are organized in a hierarchical factor structure that consists of eight correlated first-order or narrowband syndromes, two correlated second-order or broadband factors (i.e., Internalizing and Externalizing Problems) and an overall Total Problems factor. Parents/caregivers are asked to rate the child with regard to how current each item is at the time of assessment or within the past 6 months. The following scale is used 0 = not true (as far as you know), 1 = somewhat or sometimes true, and 2 = very true or often true. In the case of respondents with poor strikeing skills, a non-clinically trained clincian can also admisnter the CBCL (Achenbach Rescorla, 2006). For respondents who cannot read English but can read another language, translations are operational in over 85 languages (Berube Achenbach, 2008).Development of the CBCL.The first version of the CBCL dates back to 1983. To date, there have been two revisions of the CBCL the first one in 1991 followed by the second in 2001, leading to considerable improvements in the measure. The ma in weakness of the initial CBCL was that comparisons across different age groups and respondents were problematic since syndromes had the same names but different items across different age forms (i.e., 4 to 5, 6 to 11, 12 to 16 years) as well as across different respondent forms (i.e., CBCL, teacher report form TRF, and the youth self report YSR) To rectify the problem, the 1991 version included two new types of syndromes, the core and cross-informant syndromes. Core syndromes represented items that clustered together consistently across age and gender groupings on a single instrument. Cross-informant syndromes were based on those items from the core syndromes that appear on at least two of the troika different respondent forms (i.e., CBCL, TRF, and YSR) (Greenbaum et al., 2004). These revisions facilitated comparisons across different age groups and informants. Moreover, the 1991 version of the CBCL also had new national level norms, which included norms for seventeen and eighte en year olds. apart(predicate) from practical benefits, changes such as a broader age range and precise criteria for different developmental levels, genders and type of respondents, helped make the CBCL and ASEBA instruments more accurately representative of the developmental perspective of child psychopathology (Greenbaum et al.).Achenbach (1991) also conducted exploratory principal factor analyses of the syndrome scales. Based on the loadings of different syndromes, Achenbach identified impetuous/Depressed, Withdrawn, and Somatic Complaints as indicators of Internalizing Problems, whereas Aggressive and Delinquent Behavior were identified as indicators of Externalizing Problems. Since Social Problems, Thought Problems and Attention Problems did not load consistently on either second-order factor, they were not placed in any group (Achenbach, 1991 Greenbaum et al., 2004). Although Internalizing and Externalizing Problems identify different types of behaviour, the two categories a re not mutually exclusive and may co-occur within the same individual. This is supported by research findings that indicate that there was a correlation between the two groups in both clinic-referred (.54) and non-referred (.59) samples matched on the basis of age, sex, race, and income (Achenbach, 1991). explanation of the current CBCL.The current CBCL was published in 2001 and covers ages 6 to 18 years (CBCL/6-18 Achenbach Rescorla, 2001). The CBCL/6-18 (Achenbach Rescorla, 2001) provides raw scores, T- scores and percentiles for the following (1) the three competence scales (Activities, Social, School) (2) the Total Competence scale (3) the eight cross-informant syndromes (4) Internalizing and Externalizing Problems and (5) Total Problems. The cross-informant syndromes of the CBCL/6-18 include Aggressive Behavior, Anxious/Depressed, Attention Problems, Rule-Breaking Behavior, Social Problems, Somatic Complaints, Thought Problems, and Withdrawn/Depressed.As far as similarities and differences from previous versions are concerned, the current CBCL introduced some major and a few minor changes. One major change was the introduction of the DSM-oriented scales, based on which CBCL and other ASEBA forms can now be scored in terms of scales that are oriented toward categories of the fourth edition of the DSM (A.P.A., 1994). The introduction of the DSM-oriented scales has combined the categorical and empirical approaches and enables users to view problems in both the categorical and dimensional approaches (Achenbach, Dumenci Rescorla, 2003 Achenbach Rescorla, 2006). The DSM-oriented scales include hexad categories, namely Affective Problems, Anxiety Problems, Somatic Problems, Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity problems, Oppositional Defiant Problems as well as Conduct Problems. These scales are based on problem items that mental health experts from sixteen cultures across the world rated as being consistent with particular DSM diagnostic categories. Similar to the empirically based syndromes, the DSM- oriented scales also have age-, gender- and respondent-specific norms.Another major change was that new normative data was collected using multistage probability sampling in forty U.S. states as well as the District of Columbia. The selected homes were considered to be representative of the continental United States with respect to geographical region, socio-economic status, ethnicity and urbanization (Achenbach Rescorla, 2001). Moreover, complex new analyses based on new clinical and normative samples were conducted. However, the eight syndromes and Internalizing and Externalizing groupings published in 1991 were replicated with minor changes. Research findings indicated that correlations between scores on the 1991 syndromes and their 2001 counterparts ranged from .87 to 1.00 (Achenbach Rescorla, 2001Analysis of the Child Behaviour ChecklistAnalysis of the Child Behaviour ChecklistChapter II Literature ReviewAs suggested in the introducti on, numerous researchers have explored the prevalence of emotional and behavioural problems across the globe. Researchers have also investigated correlates (e.g., age and gender) associated with emotional and behavioural problems. The psychometric properties of instruments assessing emotional and behavioural problems have also been a subject of interest. In addition, researchers have also investigated cross-cultural similarities and disparities among emotional and behavioural problems. The extensive literature that addresses these issues, and which also helped formulate the rationale for the current study, is presented in five sections. The first section highlights the problems associated with epidemiological studies and compares the two main approaches to epidemiological studies, namely the categorical and the empirical approach. The second section provides a detailed description of the CBCL including the evolution of the measure, its psychometric properties, its advantages and dis advantages, as well as its range of applicability. The third section provides a description of the theoretical rationale for assessing cultural similarities and disparities associated with emotional and behavioural problems. Multicultural findings based on the CBCL as well as age and gender differences associated with emotional and behavioural problems are also reported. The fourth section consists of a review of the various processes involved in assessing the psychometric properties of instruments and findings based on psychometric properties of the various translations of the CBCL. The fifth section consists of a brief cultural and socio-political description of Pakistani society followed by a description of the salient features (i.e., family, community and cultural factors) in relation to emotional and behavioural problems in Pakistani society. Finally, there is a description of the objectives of the current study.Epidemiology of Emotional and Behavioural ProblemsCurrent reviews of epidemiological studies indicate that there is a high prevalence of emotional and behavioural problems among children and adolescents around the world (Costello et al., 2004 Hackett Hackett, 1999 Waddell et al., 2002). In one review, Costello et al. compared findings across several developed countries (including Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany and Australia) to investigate the prevalence of emotional and behavioural problems as well as that of other psychological problems. Based on their findings, the overall prevalence rates of psychological problems among children and adolescents had a very broad range (0.1% to 42%), with varying rates for each category of disorder. Categories include disruptive behaviour disorders (i.e., conduct disorder, oppositional disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder), mood disorders (i.e., major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder), anxiety disorders (i.e., phobias, generalized anxiety disorder, obsessive comp ulsive disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder) as well as substance abuse and dependence. A critical examination of the studies included in the review revealed that variations in prevalence rates may be attributed to methodological flaws such as substantial disparity across studies with regard to sample size and the age range assessed. Moreover, differences across studies in terms of the measures used, the criteria employed as well as the type of informant may also have influenced the findings.In contrast to Costello et al.s (2004) review, Waddell et al.s (2002) review was based on more stringent criteria studies based on samples of similar size and age range, as well as using similar methodology were compared. Based on Waddell et al.s review, the prevalence rates of emotional and behavioural problems varied between 10% and 20%. Although findings from both reviews vary considerably, the prevalence rates of emotional and behavioural problems across developed countries is still high and warrants serious attention. Moreover, methodological disparities across studies underscore the need for a uniform methodology to investigate the prevalence of emotional and behavioural problems.In contrast to developed countries, there are few researchers investigating prevalence rates in developing countries (e.g., Bangladesh, India, Sri lanka, Sudan, and Uganda) (Costello, 2009 Fleitlich-Bilyk Goodman, 2004 Mullick Goodman, 2005 Nikapota, 1991 Prior, Virasinghe, Smart, 2005). Moreover, there is a scarcity of reviews of the existing studies. In one review, Hackett and Hackett (1999) compared results from India, Puerto Rico, Malaysia and Sudan, and the prevalence rates of psychological disorders ranged from 1% to 49%. Similar to research in developed countries, researchers attribute variations in findings to methodological problems across studies, which include an inadequate sample size, paucity of explicit and internationally accepted diagnostic criteria, as well as inc onsistencies in assessment procedures (Fleitlich-Bilyk Goodman, 2004). Moreover, prevalence rates among developing countries may also partly be linked to the social, economic and medical environment. For example, lack of medical resources and awareness about psychological problems may result in parents not astute how to seek help (Gadit, 2007). Social taboos further compound the problem, preventing people from reporting problems and deterring help-seeking behaviour (Samad, Hollis, Prince, Goodman, 2005). More importantly, cultural variations in the conceptualization and identification of psychological problems may result in varied reporting of symptoms (Gadit, 2007). These environmental differences and methodological inconsistencies across studies emphasize the need for a cross-culturally robust methodology to investigate the prevalence of emotional and behavioural problems.Along with methodological problems and environmental differences, emotional and behavioural problems merit investigation because they affect multiple aspects of childrens functioning such as academic performance and social adjustment (Montague et al., 2005 Nelson et al., 2004 Vitaro et al., 2005). Researchers also state that there is high comorbidity among emotional and behavioural problems, (SteinHausen, Metze, Meier, Kannenberg, 1998) which creates multiple problems for children and their caregivers. Moreover, many childhood disorders continue and influence functioning during adulthood. In fact, many adult disorders are now recognized as having roots in childhood vulnerabilities (Maughan Kim-Cohen, 2005 Tremblay et al., 2005). Furthermore, recognizing and treating problems early can reduce the burden of the enormous human and financial costs associated with the assessment and intervention, especially in countries where resources are scarce (Costello, Egger, Angold, 2005 James et al., 2002 Waddell et al., 2002). In addition, cross-cultural epidemiology of childrens emotional and beha vioural problems may also better inform current knowledge about the characteristics, course, and correlates of such problems, which in turn provide a scientific basis for appropriate mental health planning (Achenbach Rescorla, 2007 Waddell et al.). Therefore, there is a strong need for a methodology that can be utilized for clinical as well as research purposes to assess emotional and behavioural problems among children and adolescents across cultures.Current literature indicates that there are two main approaches to investigate the epidemiology of emotional and behavioural problems, namely the categorical and the empirical approach. There are several differences in both approaches including conceptualization of psychological problems as well as the methodology employed for their assessment. Both approaches will be discussed briefly.The categorical approach. The categorical approach, based on the biomedical perspective, views psychological problems as a group of maladaptive and dis tressing behaviours, emotions and thoughts which are qualitatively different from the typical (Cullinan, 2004). That is, similar to medical diseases, an individual may or may not have a specific psychological disorder. Traditional epidemiological studies are based on the categorical approach as embodied in various editions of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM) (American Psychiatric Association (APA), 1980 1987 1994 2000) and the International Classification of Diseases (WHO, 1978 1992). Examples of instruments used in traditional epidemiological studies to derive DSM diagnoses include the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC) (Costello, Edelbrock, Kalas, Kessler, Klaric, 1982) and the childrens version of the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (Kiddie-SADS) (Puig-Antich Chambers, 1978). At present, there is considerable debate about the validity of epidemiological studies based on the categorical approach. Researchers have highlighted that inconsistencies in prevalence rates may be due to conceptual and methodological issues linked with the DSM as well as methodological disparities among studies (Achenbach Rescorla, 2007 Waddell et al., 2002). Each of these factors will be discussed briefly.DSM related problems. Multiple conceptual and methodological problems are associated with the DSM. First, the DSM does not provide a methodology to operationally define different psychological disorders (Widiger Clark, 2000). To operationally define DSM criteria, various diagnostic interviews such as the DISC have been developed. Unfortunately, meta-analyses indicate that the diagnoses based on the DISC and other diagnostic interviews are not in agreement with diagnoses made through comprehensive clinical interviews, which indicate that, neither diagnostic nor clinical interviews provide good validity criteria for testing DSM categories (Achenbach, 2005 Costello et al., 2005 Lewczyk et al., 2003). Second, the dia gnostic categories and criteria provided in the DSM continue to change as reflected in the changes across the various editions of the DSM, namely the third edition (APA, 1980), third edition revised (APA, 1987), fourth edition (APA, 1994), and fourth edition text revised (APA, 2000), making comparisons across editions problematic (Achenbach, 2005). Third, although the current version, known as the DSM-IV-text revised (APA, 2000), aims at introducing cultural sensitivity in assessment and diagnoses by including an outline for cultural formulation and a glossary of culture-bound syndromes (APA., 2000, pg. 897), it does not provide criteria or guidelines regarding the use of the classification system with specific cultural groups (Paniagua, 2005). Since many of the DSM diagnostic criteria are based on Euro-American social norms, it is difficult to use the DSM criteria to identify psychopathology in individuals from other cultures.In addition, there is growing consensus among researcher s that DSM categories need to be more appropriate for children and adolescents of different ages and gender (Doucette, 2002 Segal Coolidge, 2001). Turk et al. (2007) also highlight the saliency of factors such as age and gender when investigating prevalence rates. However, at present, this is not the case. Costello et al. (2005) have stated that the constant developmental changes of childhood create the need for an age- and gender- specific approach to epidemiology.Before incorporating a developmental perspective in epidemiological studies, it is essential to have a better understanding of developmental psychopathology. Developmental psychopathology is based on the view that problems arise from different causes, manifest themselves differently at each stage, and may have diverse outcomes. Developmental psychologists do not support a specific theory to explain all developmental issues. Instead, they try to incorporate knowledge from multiple disciplines (Cicchetti Dawson, 2002). Mo reover, developmental psychopathology also includes an analysis of the existing risk and protective factors within the individual and also in his/her environment over the course of development (Cicchetti Walker, 2003).According to Costello and colleagues (2004), a developmental perspective in epidemiological studies is based on the inclusion of certain principles. First, precise assessment measures for the different phases in childhood and adolescence are required to compare childrens functioning with that of their same-age peers. For example, problems such as fear of dark places is considered typical for 6-year-olds but not for 12-year-olds. Furthermore, the developmental perspective would include longitudinal studies to evaluate the ways in which developmental processes influence the risk of specific psychological disorders. For example, the developmental trajectory of physical aggression is such that there is an increase in Aggressive Behavior during the first few years of child hood, but it progressively decreases until adulthood (Tremblay et al., 2004). Moreover, developmental epidemiology would include frequent assessments to determine the onset of disorders. Frequent assessments would also assist in the identification of environmental and individual factors that contribute to the development of psychopathology. Although the developmental perspective emphasises the need for age- and gender-specific diagnostic criteria, longitudinal studies as well as frequent assessments, it is difficult to incorporate this perspective in studies based on the categorical approach as it is not sensitive to developmental changes.Methodological disparities. A critical analysis of categorically based epidemiological studies reveals multiple methodological problems. These include inconsistencies in assessment and sampling procedures as well as absence of guidelines about using data from multiple sources. In terms of assessment procedures, both symptoms as well as significant impairment are required to identify children with disorders. This is corroborated by Costello et al. (2004), who report that the disparity in the prevalence rates of phobias (i.e., 0.1% to 21.9%) may be attributed to how phobias were assessed in each study, in particular, whether both symptoms (e.g., fear of open places, snakes) as well as significant functional impairment were taken into account in the identification of phobias. Waddell et al. (2002) state that the use of standardized measures has lead to an improvement in the assessment of symptoms however, problems still exist with regard to how impairment is gauged or how measures may be combined to include symptoms as well as impairment. Another problem with assessment procedures is that different interview schedules (e.g., DISC and the Kiddie-SADS) and DSM editions have been used across studies, which may have contributed to differences in prevalence rates.Incompatible sampling procedures may also have led to disparities in ov erall prevalence rates in categorically based epidemiological studies (Waddell et al., 2002). For example, studies such as the Great Smokey Mountains study (Costello, Angold, Burns, Erkanli, Stangel Tweed, 1996) were relatively more comprehensive, and investigated a larger number of diagnostic categories than other studies. As a result, higher overall prevalence rates of psychological problems were reported compared to studies that did not assess as many disorders. Another sampling issue is that reviews were based on studies that differed with regard to the age range assessed some studies focused on a younger age bracket (i.e., between 8 to 11 year olds), others on an older age bracket (i.e., 11 years and older), whereas some researches included a very broad age range (i.e., 6 to 17 year olds). In addition, there were inconsistencies across studies in terms of the type of informant used some studies relied on parents only, some on children, while some combined data from parents, ch ildren as well as teachers. Differences in the age brackets assessed as well as the use of different informants may have contributed to disparities in epidemiological findings.Another salient issue with regard to categorically based epidemiological studies concerns the coordination and interpretation of information from multiple informants. Since problem behaviours may only occur in specific situations or with specific individuals, multiple informants (e.g., teachers, parents and children) are necessary. However, since the respondents context and perception have a great impact on the identification of psychological problems, poor agreement among respondents is frequently reported. For example, children normally report higher rates of internalizing symptoms (e.g., anxiety and depression) while parents tends to report higher rates of externalizing symptoms (e.g., Conduct Problems) (Rubio-Stipec, Fitzmaurice, Murphy, Walker, 2003). Additionally, children are not considered reliable re porters of their own behaviour due to differences in cognitive abilities as well as the ability to report their own behaviour (Achenbach McConaughy, 2003). Despite such findings, the categorical approach does not provide guidelines regarding obtaining and interpreting data from multiple sources, which complicates matters in terms of how to combine data into yes-or-no decisions about different symptoms.The various conceptual problems associated with the DSM as well as the methodological flaws in epidemiological reviews highlight the problems associated with using the categorical approach as a basis for epidemiological studies. Moreover, these issues underscore the need for an approach that is methodologically sound and culturally appropriate for cross-cultural comparisons. An alternative to problems linked to the categorical approach, where an a priori criterion is imposed, can be a system that is empirically based and identifies problems as they occur in a population. Such an appro ach would be helpful in highlighting cultural differences in the manifestation of different emotional and behavioural problems. Moreover, there is also a need for a methodology that can be employed in a standardized, systematic fashion. Although the empirical approach is not a panacea for problems associated with epidemiological studies, it does provide solutions to some of the types of errors in the categorical system.Empirical or dimensional approach. The empirical or dimensional approach, in accordance with a psychosocial perspective, views mental health as a continuum. The dimensional perspective supports the notion that all individuals experience problems involving behaviours, emotions and thoughts to varying extents. Those who experience such problems to an extreme extent (unusual frequency, duration, intensity, or other aspects) are more likely to have a psychological disorder (Cullinan, 2004). In contrast to imposing a priori criteria on childrens emotional and behavioural p roblems, the empirical approach identifies problems as they present themselves in the population. According to Cullinan (2004), there are certain steps involved in developing a dimensional classification system for emotional and behavioural problems. These steps include creating a collection of items that reflect measurable problem behaviours experienced by children, identifying a group of children to be studied, assessing every child in the group on each problem, and investigating the data to identify items that co-vary, thus leading to the identification of different dimensions or factors. After the dimensions have been derived, the pool of items can be used to assess and classify emotional and behaviour problems among new populations. Given that the empirical approach is based on the identification of co-occurring problem behaviours in the population, instead of imposing a priori criteria, it is a favourable approach for cross-cultural epidemiological studies.Within empirical app roaches, the Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment (ASEBA) provides a good framework for epidemiological studies for multiple reasons. First, being empirically based, ASEBA identifies emotional and behavioural problems as they occur in the population. Second, it is based on a developmental perspective, has a uniform methodology, and also provides explicit guidelines about using data from multiple sources (Achenbach McConaughy, 1997 Achenbach Rescorla, 2001). Hence it provides solutions to problems that arise in the categorical approach. Moreover, Cullinan (2004) and Krol et al. (2006) state that ASEBA measures have been used more extensively compared to other measures of emotional and behavioural problems, such as the Conners Rating Scale- Revised (Conners,1990) and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (Goodman, 1997). Achenbach system of empirically based assessment (ASEBA).Although the ASEBA has a non-theoretical, empirical base per se, it is greatly influence d by the principles of developmental psychopathology. For example, Achenbach highlights that problems may include thoughts, behaviours, and emotions that may manifest themselves differently depending on the age and gender of the individual (Greenbaum et al., 2004). Therefore, each ASEBA form provides norms based on the age and gender of the child, which enables an individuals functioning to be assessed in comparison to same-age peers. Furthermore, ASEBA is a multiaxial system that encompasses a family of standardized instruments for the assessment of behavioural and emotional problems as well as adaptive functioning. The five axes of the assessment model include parent (Axis I) and teacher (Axis II) reports, cognitive (Axis III) and physical (Axis IV) assessments as well as the direct assessment of children (Axis V) (Achenbach McConaughy, 2003). The use of different ASEBA instruments provides a standardized and uniform methodology to incorporate information from multiple sources.Fu rthermore, all ASEBA instruments are empirically based. In accordance with the empirical approach, the construction of the ASEBA forms involved a series of steps (Achenbach McConaughy, 2003). Initially, a collection of potential symptom behaviours (i.e., items) was derived from multiple sources. These items were operationally defined in such a manner that respondents not trained in psychological theory could use them. In accordance with general item-development procedures, pilot tests were conducted to evaluate the clarity of items, response scales and item distribution. Finally, items that could differentiate between individuals who were not functioning well and their well functioning same-age peers were retained. Multivariate statistical analyses were applied to the retained items in order to identify syndromes of problems that co-occur. Syndromes were identified purely on the basis of co-occurrence, without any link to a particular cause. Subsequently, the syndromes of co-occurr ing problem items were used to construct scales. These scales were used to assess individuals in order to assess the degree to which they exhibit each syndrome. Since all ASEBA instruments are empirically based, findings can be compared on the basis of the manifestation of different emotional and behavioural problems, thereby providing a clearer picture of cross-cultural similarities and disparities of different emotional and behavioural problems.In terms of the historical evolution of the system, ASEBA originated to provide a more differentiated assessment of child and adolescent psychopathology than the DSM. When ASEBA was developed, the first edition of the DSM (APA, 1952) had only two categories for childhood disorders, which included adjustment reactions of childhood and schizophrenic reaction childhood type (Achenbach Rescorla, 2006). In contrast to the DSM, the first ASEBA publication highlighted more syndromes of emotional and behavioural problems (APA, 1952). Moreover, bas ed on factor analyses, Achenbach (1966) identified two broad groupings of problems for which he coined the terms Internalizing and Externalizing. As described earlier, Internalizing Problems included problems with the self, such as anxiety, depression, withdrawal, and Somatic Complaints, without any apparent physical cause. On the other hand, Externalizing Problems included problems with other people, as well as problems linked to non-conformance to social norms and mores, such as aggressive and delinquent behaviour. Although all ASEBA forms are used extensively in clinical and research environments, the Child Behavior Checklist is the most widely recognized measure for the assessment of emotional and behavioural problems (Greenbaum et al., 2004 Webber Plotts, 2008).Child Behavior ChecklistAn essential part and the cornerstone of Achenbachs multiaxial, empirical system is the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Although the CBCL assesses social competencies as well as problem behaviou rs, it is widely recognized as a measure of emotional and behavioural problems as opposed to social competencies. In fact, researchers suggest that the CBCL is the most extensively utilized measure for the assessment of problem behaviours among children and adolescents as observed by their parents and caregivers (Krol et al., 2006 Greenbaum et al., 2004).Although there have been multiple revisions to the initial CBCL, all versions have the same format and consist of two distinct sections. The first section measures social competencies. Parents are asked to respond to 20 questions regarding the childs functioning in sports, miscellaneous activities, organizations, jobs and chores, and friendships. Items also cover the childs relations with significant others, how well the child plays and works alone, as well as his/her functioning at school. Finally, respondents describe any known illnesses or disabilities, the issues that concern them the most about the child, and the best things ab out the child (Achenbach Rescorla, 2006). The second section assesses problem behaviour and consists of 118 items that describe specific emotional and behavioural problems, along with two open-ended items for reporting additional problems. Examples of problem items include acts too young for age, cruel to animals, too fearful or anxious, and unhappy, sad or depressed. Problem behaviours are organized in a hierarchical factor structure that consists of eight correlated first-order or narrowband syndromes, two correlated second-order or broadband factors (i.e., Internalizing and Externalizing Problems) and an overall Total Problems factor. Parents/caregivers are asked to rate the child with regard to how true each item is at the time of assessment or within the past 6 months. The following scale is used 0 = not true (as far as you know), 1 = somewhat or sometimes true, and 2 = very true or often true. In the case of respondents with poor reading skills, a non-clinically trained clinc ian can also admisnter the CBCL (Achenbach Rescorla, 2006). For respondents who cannot read English but can read another language, translations are available in over 85 languages (Berube Achenbach, 2008).Development of the CBCL.The first version of the CBCL dates back to 1983. To date, there have been two revisions of the CBCL the first one in 1991 followed by the second in 2001, leading to considerable improvements in the measure. The main weakness of the initial CBCL was that comparisons across different age groups and respondents were problematic since syndromes had the same names but different items across different age forms (i.e., 4 to 5, 6 to 11, 12 to 16 years) as well as across different respondent forms (i.e., CBCL, teacher report form TRF, and the youth self report YSR) To rectify the problem, the 1991 version included two new types of syndromes, the core and cross-informant syndromes. Core syndromes represented items that clustered together consistently across age and gender groupings on a single instrument. Cross-informant syndromes were based on those items from the core syndromes that appear on at least two of the three different respondent forms (i.e., CBCL, TRF, and YSR) (Greenbaum et al., 2004). These revisions facilitated comparisons across different age groups and informants. Moreover, the 1991 version of the CBCL also had new national level norms, which included norms for seventeen and eighteen year olds. Apart from practical benefits, changes such as a broader age range and precise criteria for different developmental levels, genders and type of respondents, helped make the CBCL and ASEBA instruments more accurately representative of the developmental perspective of child psychopathology (Greenbaum et al.).Achenbach (1991) also conducted exploratory principal factor analyses of the syndrome scales. Based on the loadings of different syndromes, Achenbach identified Anxious/Depressed, Withdrawn, and Somatic Complaints as indicators of Int ernalizing Problems, whereas Aggressive and Delinquent Behavior were identified as indicators of Externalizing Problems. Since Social Problems, Thought Problems and Attention Problems did not load consistently on either second-order factor, they were not placed in any group (Achenbach, 1991 Greenbaum et al., 2004). Although Internalizing and Externalizing Problems identify different types of behaviour, the two categories are not mutually exclusive and may co-occur within the same individual. This is supported by research findings that indicate that there was a correlation between the two groups in both clinic-referred (.54) and non-referred (.59) samples matched on the basis of age, sex, race, and income (Achenbach, 1991).Description of the current CBCL.The current CBCL was published in 2001 and covers ages 6 to 18 years (CBCL/6-18 Achenbach Rescorla, 2001). The CBCL/6-18 (Achenbach Rescorla, 2001) provides raw scores, T- scores and percentiles for the following (1) the three comp etence scales (Activities, Social, School) (2) the Total Competence scale (3) the eight cross-informant syndromes (4) Internalizing and Externalizing Problems and (5) Total Problems. The cross-informant syndromes of the CBCL/6-18 include Aggressive Behavior, Anxious/Depressed, Attention Problems, Rule-Breaking Behavior, Social Problems, Somatic Complaints, Thought Problems, and Withdrawn/Depressed.As far as similarities and differences from previous versions are concerned, the current CBCL introduced some major and a few minor changes. One major change was the introduction of the DSM-oriented scales, based on which CBCL and other ASEBA forms can now be scored in terms of scales that are oriented toward categories of the fourth edition of the DSM (A.P.A., 1994). The introduction of the DSM-oriented scales has combined the categorical and empirical approaches and enables users to view problems in both the categorical and dimensional approaches (Achenbach, Dumenci Rescorla, 2003 Achen bach Rescorla, 2006). The DSM-oriented scales include six categories, namely Affective Problems, Anxiety Problems, Somatic Problems, Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity problems, Oppositional Defiant Problems as well as Conduct Problems. These scales are based on problem items that mental health experts from sixteen cultures across the world rated as being consistent with particular DSM diagnostic categories. Similar to the empirically based syndromes, the DSM- oriented scales also have age-, gender- and respondent-specific norms.Another major change was that new normative data was collected using multistage probability sampling in forty U.S. states as well as the District of Columbia. The selected homes were considered to be representative of the continental United States with respect to geographical region, socio-economic status, ethnicity and urbanization (Achenbach Rescorla, 2001). Moreover, complex new analyses based on new clinical and normative samples were conducted. However, the eight syndromes and Internalizing and Externalizing groupings published in 1991 were replicated with minor changes. Research findings indicated that correlations between scores on the 1991 syndromes and their 2001 counterparts ranged from .87 to 1.00 (Achenbach Rescorla, 2001

Learning Disabilities and Career Development Essay example -- Educatio

information Disabilities and move DevelopmentThe lifelong accomplish of vocation organic evolution poses special challenges for people with learning disabilities (LD). Although the career evolution of individuals with disabilities is not widely discussed in the literature, key pieces of legislation enacted or reauthorized in the 1990sIndividuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), and the Rehabilitation Act (now Title IV of the work force Investment Act)have helped incr locomote the numbers of individuals with LD in postsecondary education and the awareness of their needs in the workplace (Hitchings and Retish 2000). This Brief reviews research on the career development needs of persons with LD and describes practices to assist them with the process of gaining and maintaining employment. Employment Issues breeding disabilities are generally defined as significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or numerical abilities (Michaels 1997 Ohler, Levinson, and Barker 1996). on that point are a number of types as well as major individual differences in severity, impact, and age of onset (Cummings, Maddux, and Casey 2000 Hitchings and Retish 2000). There is no single story to tell about outcomes of students with disabilities (Blackorby and Wagner 1997, p. 58). Many people with LD have succeeded in the workplace, often as entrepreneurs, and recent legislation is intended to ease the process of disclosing a disability and obtaining on-the-job accommodations (Brown and Gerber 1994). Adults with LD are employed at the same rate as those without disabilities, but many are underemployedin part-time, entry-level, minimum-wage jobs (Blackorby and Wa... ...h Disabilities. journal for Vocational Special Needs Education 23, no. 1 (Fall 2000) 24-33.Michaels, C. A. Preparation for Employment. In Learning Disabilities and Employment, edited by P. J. Gerber and D. S. Brown, p p. 187-212. Austin, TX PRO-ED, Inc., 1997. Ohler, D. L. Levinson, E. M. and Barker, W. F. Career Maturity in College Students with Learning Disabilities. Career Development Quarterly 44, no. 3 (March 1996) 278-288. Reiff, H. B. Off the Beaten Path A Model for Employment Success for Adults with Learning Disabilities. In Learning Disabilities, Literacy, and Adult Education, edited by S. A. Vogel and S. Reder, pp. 313-329. Baltimore, MD Paul H. Brookes, 1998. Rojewski, J. W. Educational and Occupational Aspirations of High School Seniors with Learning Disabilities. Exceptional Children 62, no. 5 (March-April 1996) 463-476. Learning Disabilities and Career Development Essay example -- EducatioLearning Disabilities and Career DevelopmentThe lifelong process of career development poses special challenges for people with learning disabilities (LD). Although the career development of individuals with disabilities is not widely discussed in the literature, key pieces of legi slation enacted or reauthorized in the 1990sIndividuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), and the Rehabilitation Act (now Title IV of the Workforce Investment Act)have helped increase the numbers of individuals with LD in postsecondary education and the awareness of their needs in the workplace (Hitchings and Retish 2000). This Brief reviews research on the career development needs of persons with LD and describes practices to assist them with the process of gaining and maintaining employment. Employment IssuesLearning disabilities are generally defined as significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities (Michaels 1997 Ohler, Levinson, and Barker 1996). There are a number of types as well as major individual differences in severity, impact, and age of onset (Cummings, Maddux, and Casey 2000 Hitchings and Retish 2000). There is no single story to tell about o utcomes of students with disabilities (Blackorby and Wagner 1997, p. 58). Many people with LD have succeeded in the workplace, often as entrepreneurs, and recent legislation is intended to ease the process of disclosing a disability and obtaining on-the-job accommodations (Brown and Gerber 1994). Adults with LD are employed at the same rate as those without disabilities, but many are underemployedin part-time, entry-level, minimum-wage jobs (Blackorby and Wa... ...h Disabilities. Journal for Vocational Special Needs Education 23, no. 1 (Fall 2000) 24-33.Michaels, C. A. Preparation for Employment. In Learning Disabilities and Employment, edited by P. J. Gerber and D. S. Brown, pp. 187-212. Austin, TX PRO-ED, Inc., 1997. Ohler, D. L. Levinson, E. M. and Barker, W. F. Career Maturity in College Students with Learning Disabilities. Career Development Quarterly 44, no. 3 (March 1996) 278-288. Reiff, H. B. Off the Beaten Path A Model for Employment Success for Adults with Learning Disabi lities. In Learning Disabilities, Literacy, and Adult Education, edited by S. A. Vogel and S. Reder, pp. 313-329. Baltimore, MD Paul H. Brookes, 1998. Rojewski, J. W. Educational and Occupational Aspirations of High School Seniors with Learning Disabilities. Exceptional Children 62, no. 5 (March-April 1996) 463-476.

Analysis of Ceremony, by Leslie Marmon Silko :: Ceremony Essays

People much feel that their opinions do not matter, that they cannot make a difference. This is untrue, one soul does have the ability to change an outcome, halt or finalize a decision, and even build or destroy a culture. In the novel Ceremony, by Leslie Marmon Silko, this is witnessed in the character Auntie, a dominating, selfish woman who will do anything to do good a respectable status in the community. In an attempt to gain acceptance from both Native and Western societies, Auntie metaphorically kills her own child which in turn destroys the Native American culture. Auntie has a copious desire for belonging, not only in Western civilization, but in her own Native world as well. She is constantly preoccupied with the image of which she projects to the community, often worrying that the rumors of her family will bring about shame and dishonor. Although the community has far more important issues to deal with, Auntie feels that is necessary to escape the alleged, judgm ent that is derived from her baby promiscuous behavior and her brothers affair. Her belief is that if she is acknowledged in Western culture, than her past will cease to follow her. To acquire respect from Western society, Auntie potently encourages her son, Rocky, to pursue non-traditional ways yet in the process fails to realize that she is pushing him considerably away from his heritage.Rocky is an adolescent that other students would envy he is gifted athletic and competitive, a perfect example illustrating the effects of Western culture. Of course his school supports his so called success, but his mother is the real culprit in discovery him of the pride he should posses toward his treasured past. Silko explains, All that summer, while Josiah and Tayo watched the cattle and the sheep camp, and Robert worked in the fields each day, Rocky read magazines and ran laps at the baseball diamond. Auntie do it clear to everyone that it was all necessary if Rocky were to keep his footb all scholarship to the University.